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person pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are usually not stressed.
2Tone（音调）：Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of ○
vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes; therefore, the tone is a suprasegmental feature. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages.
English is not a tone language. Our mother tongue, Chinese, is a typical tone language. It has four tones. The first tone is level(阴平), the second rise(阳平), the third fall-rise(上声), and the fourth fall(去声). The role of the tone can be well illustrated by pronouncing the same sound combination such as \ ma(妈) m a(麻) ma (马) ma (骂)
3Intonation（语调实例）：When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather ○
than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English.
English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone. The most frequently used are the first three. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.
Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.
Spoken in the falling-tone, version (1) simply states a fact, i. e., the book in question is not the one he wants. Version (2), said in the rising tone, indicates uncertainty on the part of the speaker; he is asking the question: Is that not the book he wants? Version (3),spoken in the fall-rise tone indicates that apart from what is said: literally, there is an implied message, i.e., besides telling the listener that the book in question is not the one he wants, the speaker implies that there is some other book he wants.
Intonation can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing the nucleus （语核；音节核心） on it. Nucleus refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit. Within one intonation unit, the nucleus normally falls on the last stressed syllable. Shifting the nucleus to another syllable, normally stressed or unstressed, will cause difference in meaning.
15． Morphology（形态学）：Linguists use the term morphology to refer to the part of the grammer that is concerned with word formation and word structure.
For example, a speaker of English who knows the verb read can recognize reader as the person who reads, and can construct and understand the words such as lip-read, sight-read, reading, reading-class, reading-room, etc
16. Open class（开放类）：Nouns, verbs, adjectives and verbs (content words); can be
expanded.
Eg：Beatnik=beat+nik (noun) =a member of the Beat Generation
Closed class(封闭类)：Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns (functional words); cannot be expanded.
Eg:Letter “e”: a new neutral third person singular pronoun, neither masculine nor feminine, which can be used as the general form.
Others, however, have pointed out that they/their are already being used as a neutral third person singular.eg: Anyone can join the club if they like. Everyone can do their best.
Of the two proposals, which one is the better candidate? As pronouns have \we predict that they/their will stand a better chance to serve this need than a completely new pronoun.
17..Open class开放词汇: Nouns, verbs, adjectives and verbs (content words); can be expanded. Closed class封闭词汇:Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns (functional words); cannot be expanded.
.Morphology语法: thus refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
.morpheme词素:Some words are formed by combining a number of distinct units of meaning. The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme. A single word may consist of one or more morphemes.
Prefixes前缀: Thus un- is like dis- (disorder, disagree); it occurs only before other morphemes. Such morphemes are called prefixes.
Suffixes后缀:Other morphemes occur only as suffixes, i. e. only after other morphemes. Examples of such morphemes are -or (operator), -er (writer), and -ful (wonderful), to mention just a few.
Traditionally, these prefixes and suffixes have been called bound morphemes附着语素
Morphemes like girl, rely and so on, can be used freely, so they are called free morphemes自由语素
These morphemes are conjoined to other morphemes (or words) a new word is derived, or formed, thus they called derivational morphemes派生语素 Some derivational morphemes do not change grammatical class
there are bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. Such bound morphemes are referred to as inflectional morphemes屈折语素（曲折语素）. They are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category. 18.Syntax句法：It studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.What we are going to study is the simple version of transformational syntax.
19.1.Category（范畴） refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
20.A fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories（句法范畴）.
This classification reflects a variety of factors, including the type of meaning that words express, the type of affixes（词缀） that they take, and the type of structures in which they can occur.
The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories.
In traditional grammar only about eight categories (called parts of speech) are recognized, but all current theories of grammar have found it necessary to increase this number by the addition of such non-traditional categories as determiner (Det)限定词, degree words程度词 (Deg) and qualifier (Qual)限定语.
Here word level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories（小词汇分类） and minor lexical categories（主要词汇分类）
Major lexical categories play a very important role in sentence formation. They differ from minor lexical categories in that they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built. Examples of some lexical categories Major lexical categories Examples：
Noun (N) book, boy, love, sheep Verb (V) run, read, play Adjective (A) happy, tall, clear Preposition (P) about, over, on Minor lexical categories Examples：
Determiner (Det) the, a, this, those
Degree word (Deg) quite, very, more, so
Qualifier (Oual) often, always, seldom, almost Auxiliary (Aux) must, should, can, might Conjunction (Con) and, but, or
21. Phrase categories and their structures 1.1. Phrase categories
A. Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built..
B. The most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories : noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP) and prepositional phrase (PP).
C. Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head（中心语）, specifier（标志语）and complement（补足语）. The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head. The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. The words on the right side of the heads are complements. 1.2phrase structure rule
A. Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.
B. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP→ (Det) N (PP) ... VP→ (Qual) V (NP) ... AP→ (Deg) A (PP) ... PP→ (Deg) P (NP) ... 22. NP→VP→AP→PP
noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP) and prepositional phrase (PP) 23. Surface and deep structures
There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's sub-categorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure). 24. Semantics
4.1. Definition: Semantics is the study of meaning. 4.2Some views concerning the study of meaning A. The naming theory
This theory was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. It means that the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.
Two limitations:
(1) Applicable to nouns only
(2) Nouns do not always denote existing things and do not always refer to physical objects. B. Conceptualist view
This view relates words and things through the mediation of concepts of the mind.
This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. C. Contextualism
They hold that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context -- elements closely linked with language behavior. J.R. Firth, held the view that 'We shall know a word by the company it keeps,' and that 'By regarding words as acts, events, habits, we limit our inquiry to what is objective in the group life of our fellows.\
Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context. D. Behaviorism
This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest. This view of meaning proposed by Bloomfield is illustrated by his story about Jack and Jill, represented by the figure below. 4.3 Lexical meaning 4.3.1 sense and reference
Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.
Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 4.3.2 major sense relations 4.3.2.1 synonymy
Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
English is rich in synonyms for historical reasons. In the English vocabulary there are two categories of words: native words and borrowed (loan) words. 4.3.2.2 Polysemy
While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have