发布时间 : 星期二 文章语言学总结更新完毕开始阅读16c870fc804d2b160a4ec081
1. Linguistics/linguist(语言学)
Definition：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
2. Branches of general linguistics: central core(语言学的分支,中央核心)
Phonetics（语音学） Phonology（音位学） Morphology（形态学） Syntax（句法）
Semantics（语义学） Pragmatics（语用学）
3. Descriptive/prescriptive(描述,规定) Descriptive study（描述性研究）：1.Describe and analyze the language people actually use. 2. Modern linguistics（现代语言学） is mostly descriptive. It is scientific（科学的） and objective（客观的）.
Prescriptive study（规范研究）：1.Lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language. 2. Tell people what they should say and what they should not say. 3. Traditional grammar（传统语法） is based on “high” written language and aims to set models for language users to follow.
4. Synchronic and diachronic(共时的,历时的) Synchronic study（共时性研究）：1.The description of a language at some point of time in history. 2. A synchronic approach enjoys priority（优先权） over a diachronic one.
Diachronic study（历时研究）: The description of a language as it changes through time.
5.Langue/parole<语言/言语>
(1). The distinction between the two concepts was made by F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.
(2). Who is Saussure?
F. de Saussure, Swiss Linguist--Father of Modern Linguistics.His work “Course in General Linguistics”<普通语言学> marks the beginning of modern linguistics.
(3).Langue: Abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Set of conventions and rules which all language users all have to abide by.
Parole: Realization of language in actual use.Concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.
Comparison: Langue: abstract; stable Parole: concrete; varied
In Saussure?s opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied, and confusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole. Competence and performance
The distinction between the two concepts was proposed by N. Chomsky in the late 1950?s. N. Chomsky, American Linguist,
(1) Competence:语言能力 Ideal user?s knowledge of the rules of his language.
Performance: 语言运用Actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 总结：Distinction between the two pairs of notions:
Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions. 6 .Modern linguistics and the traditional grammar Modern Linguistics: descriptive , 叙述性的Speech, Universal framework Traditional Grammar：Prescriptive规范性的 ，Writing，Latin-based framework 7. Design features: Arbitrariness/Productivity/Displacement/Cultural transmission 1.what is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols 任意的有声信号used for human communication. Charles F. Hockett has written a book called a Course In Modern Linguistics 2.Design features of language结构特点 Arbitrariness（任意性）There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Productivity（创造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. Duality（结构二重性）Lower level: a structure of meaningless sounds,Higher level: grouped and regrouped sounds with meaning Displacement（不受时空限制的特征）Languages can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. Cultural transmission（文化传递） The detailed of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. 8.Phonetics: Articulatary phonetics/auditory phonetics/acoustic phonetics The study of sounds is divided into 3 areas: (1) Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 (2) Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 (3) Acoustic phonetics声学语言学 9.①Pharyngeal cavity: the throat咽腔 ②Oral cavity:the mouth口腔 ③Nasal cavity: the nose鼻腔 10.IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标) [辨International Phonetic Association 国际语音协会] The first version of the IPA was published in 1888.The IPA has been revised and corrected several times and the present system of IPA derives mainly from one developed in the 1920s, by the British phonetician Daniel Jones(琼斯)and his colleagues at university of London. 11.①Place of articulation(发音部位) [弱弱的补充一下]发音部位包括：bilabial双唇音.labiodental唇齿音.dental齿间音.alveolar齿龈音.palatal硬腭音.velar软腭音.glottal声门音. Postalveolar后齿龈音.retroflex卷舌音.uvular小舌音.pharyngeal咽音。 ②Manner of articulation(发音方法) 包括：stop爆破音. Fricative摩擦音. Affricates破擦音. Lateral边音. (median)approximant中通音. 12.Phonology(音系学) and Phonetics(语音学) Phonetics studied how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received. Phonology is the study of the sound system of languages. 13. Phone: is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. (P23) 音素：是从音色的角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。 在语音学与音韵学中，音素一词所指的是说话时所发出的声音。音素是具体存在的物理现象。 Phone: does not necessarily distinguish meaning.Some do, some don’t. for example, [s] and [t] do, as [si:m] and [ti:m] are two words with totally different meanings, and [th] and [t] don’t, as [stop] and [sthop] mean the same to a speaker of English. Phoneme: is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. 音位：在某一特殊语种中的有限的发音类别中的一个，它的改变可以使该语言中的词汇与其他词汇区别开。音位应该与人体的发音严格的区分开，因为音位是指一个有规律的有限的发音系统而人体的发音则是无限的。音位是音位学的单位，而人体发音则是从医学或物理学角度考虑的声音效果。 Eg：/p/ peak→[ph]→with a strong puff of air steam→aspirated /p/ speak→[p]→the puff of air withheld→unaspirated So /p/ is a phoneme in the English sound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated or unaspirated in different context. Conventionally phones are placed within square brackets, and phonemes in slashes, e. g. /p/, /l/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /m/… Allophones : Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. For example, the phoneme is /l/ can be realized as dark [I], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/. Similar sounds related in two ways: 1).Phonemic contrast: Two related distinctive phonemes. /p/-[pit], [roup] /b/-[bit], [roub] 2).Complementary distribution（互补分布）: Allophones of the same phoneme occurring in different phonetic environment, which do not distinguish meaning. Clear /l/-before a vowel: look, leap Dark /l/-between a vowel and a consonants, or at the end of a word: till, nail, feel Minimal pair:(最小对立体) A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. Pill-bill, dill-gill, pill-till, till-kill, kill-dill, dill-gill Beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat 音位的确定： 通过对比替换方法； 词首（pill/fill、pill/kill、till/dill、till/kill、kill/gill）、词中（lock/log、bit/bid、hurt/heard、trap/trash）、词尾（hit/hot、feet/foot、fail/full、beat/boot、bit/but）具有最小对立体； 元音、辅音（lob/lead、pot/dog、pill/bell）均可成为最小对立体。 14.Suprasegmental features9（超音段特征）：he phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. 1).Stress（重读）：Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds ○ of stress: word stress and sentence stress. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. The noun has the stress on the first syllable and the corresponding verb has the stress on the second syllable. 词重音实例: 'import n. -- im'port v./'increase n. --in'crease v.' Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element, and the second element receives secondary stress. Eg：lackbird：refers to a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black. （black ` bird） greenhouse and green house, hotdog and hot dog 词重音实例（动名词与分词）：The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns. Eg：dining-room, reading glasses, sewing machine, sleeping baby, swimming fish Two types： 1） one type, the -ing form serves as a modifier of the noun, e.g. dining-room, reading glasses. These are actually compound nouns. As a rule, in pronouncing this type of -ing+ noun combinations , the word stress always falls on the first element; the second element receives secondary stress: 'dining- room, 'reading glasses, 'sewing machine. 2） the other type of -ing + noun combinations, the noun is actually the doer of the action indicated by the -ing form, e.g. sleeping baby, swimming fish. These are not compound nouns, but noun phrases with an -ing participle modifier. For these combinations, the primary stress falls on the head noun, and the -ing form receives secondary stress. Sentence stress refers to the relative force given to the components of a sentence. The parts of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns; the other categories of words like articles,